17、thin and outside the community. Social capital is vital to forming strong and active communities. Described as “resources embedded in a social structure that are accessed and/or mobilized in purposive actions” (Lin 2001: 12), social capital is both a collective and individual good. Social capital it 。

18、 is a “metaphor about advantage” (Lin 2001: 31) that says people who are better connected are wealthier, more successful and happier. However, social capital is useful only if one has the opportunity to access and use embedded social resources in purposive actions (Lin 2001). So while social capital 。

19、 may exist as an individual and collective resource, it is really network capital - the relational characteristics of each member to another - that makes resources available through interpersonal ties (Wellman and Frank 2001: 233). Network capital is derived from the social characteristics of people 。

20、 in the network PLUS the 1) nature of the tie (close vs. distant;
strong vs. weak, etc.);
2) the networks composition (i.e. of close friends vs. employer);
and 3) the network structure (density vs. looseness). The importance of social and network capital for acquiring social, political and economic。

21、advantages is reflected by the preoccupation than many individuals and organizations have with networking and collaboration. Networking to mobilize social capital takes place between members of a community (social closure argument), as well as between actors from different communities (structural ho 。

22、le argument). With the advent of modern transportation and communication technology, transnational networking and collaboration has become a common practice engaged at unprecedented levels and rates. Such networks have led to the creation of various types of transnational organizations (corporations 。

23、, NGOs, etc.), practices (coalitions, social movements), and communities (of transnational migrants) that overlap and/or intersect with local organizations, practices and communities (Guarnizo and Smith 1999: 18-19). Transnational networks, organizations and practices may extend beyond the locality。

24、or nationality, yet are bounded and constrained by the opportunities and constraints found in the particular localities where transnational practices occur” (Guarnizo and Smith 1999: 11). More specifically, transnational practices and communities are “embodied in specific social relations establishe 。

25、d between specific people, situated in unequivocal localities, at historically determined times” (Guarnizo and Smith 1999: 11). An optimistic “transnationalism from below” perspective suggests that by participating in and maintaining transnational networks and social spaces, local actors can access。

26、“organizational resources that permit the development of alternative power hierarchies and improve their social position (Goldring 1999: 167) in their localities. In particular, those transnational actors that significantly alter their local community in positive ways increase its status as well as。

27、their own power in relation to both local and national authorities (Goldring 1999: 175). The ways in which a community is altered most often include community and organizational-level service and infrastructure projects that change the look and feel of the place and raise its stature. By participati 。

28、ng in these processes, actors contribute to altering the material and social landscape of their locality in a positive manner, contributing to an upward shift in the social status of both the community and themselves. Power and status are enhanced if an actor has connections that help direct resourc 。

29、es toward the local community. These connections are easier to establish for those who present themselves as community leaders capable of mobilizing people and money. In turn, leaders who present themselves as having useful connections tend to have their positions strengthened because their legitima 。

30、cy increases. In this sense, engagement within transnational social fields and the formal or informal organizations they may generate can be an important source of social capital.” (Goldring 1999: 185) and can offer an opportunity to develop an alternative hierarchy of power and reorient regimes of。

31、stratification in relation to other local community members and/or state authorities. The transnationalism from below vision is profoundly democratic and empowering” (Mahler 1999: 69), yet it is also problematic because local actors and actions can just as easily serve to reproduce or create new str 。

32、atification regimes. Also, it is problematic in that actors from below can include a range of entities including local state actors and international foundations. Recent research (Rucht 1999;
Smith and Guarnizo 1999;
Guidry, Kennedy et al. 2000;

稿源：(未知)

【傻大方】网址：/a/2021/0902/0024074201.html

标题：Structural|Structural, Cultural and Social features of a Binational Organizational Community Binational Collaboration between the US and Mexican HIV AIDS Sectors( 二 )